Life Before the Internet Essay

Comparison-contrast essay It is hard to imagine life before the internet isn’t it? I have been using it half of my life, but today’s generation of children are growing up without ever knowing what it was like. The internet is a wonderful invention that makes life easier. The internet has truly changed the world as we know it. Forever changed are the ways of completing everyday tasks such as schooling, job searching, keeping up with the news of the world and even socializing. Before the internet became established in every home, newspapers and the evening news were the only way to know what was going on in the world around us. Now a days you no longer have to stay awake to watch the eleven o’clock news come on. All you have to now is a few strokes of the keyboard and you can find out what is happening in any part of the world you want. Social networking has also seen a change as technology has progressed. We now have many more options available to keep in contact with friends and family. Although telephones are still commonly used to call Aunt Sue to wish her a happy birthday, websites such as My Space and Facebook have made it increasingly simple to keep up to date on what is going on in loved ones lives. Simply sign on to one of these websites and instant â€Å"status updates† fill the computer screen. You can find out from your living room in Florida that your family member in New York received two feet of snow this morning, and even instantly see the pictures to prove it. In addition to the advantages of Social Networking, students of today are at a great advantage. The convenience of online courses is growing increasingly popular. People no longer have to be in a classroom at a set time and listen to a lecture for three hours by a professor or teacher. Today, you can log on from virtually anywhere or anytime and read and respond to a lecture online. Research for an assignment has also been made easier. Previously, if someone needed to do research, they would have to go to a library and sift through reference books, newspapers, microfiche and other printed materials, then make copies or printouts. With today’s technology, resources like the online library and internet news sites are available to you at the click of the mouse. Job searching and resume posting have become much more painless as well. Instead of looking at classifieds in the Sunday paper and spending the day driving around town with a handful of resumes, you can now go on one of the abundant job search websites like Career Builder. com or Monster. com and post your resume to a perspective employer in minutes, saving great time, effort and gas money. As Mr.  Kuhn stated in The American Economic Review (2004), The use of internet job and recruiting sites is usually free for applicants and much cheaper for firms that traditional advertisements (P. Kuhn, 2004) As time moves forward, it is becoming increasingly difficult to remember what life was like before the internet. For some of today’s youth, the internet in it’s current form has always existed. Gone are the days of waiting, everything is available in an instant, by the click of a mouse, or the stroke of a keyboard. It has made life more convenient and offers many tools to succeed academically, socially, and professionally.

Critique of Theoretical Framework

Religion, Social Policy, and Social Work Practice Faith-based Services in Public Welfare It is generally accepted that the church has been a locus of social service and social change throughout America's history, and â€Å"that the concept of human services emerged, at least partially, from a religious base† (Ellor, Netting, ; Thibault, 1999, p. 13). Furthermore, it is recognized that the social work profession in the United States was influenced by a long history of religious traditions (Ellor et al, 1999; Hugen, 2012; Rosethal, 2006).The social welfare system that emerged in the United States, ormerly and presently, continues to be a mix of faith-based and secular organizations and groups with diversified perspectives and approaches (Ellor et al, 1999). The diverse perspectives and approaches to social welfare in the United States are rooted in an expansive array of worldviews and faith traditions. The U. S. is a pluralistic society characterized by a diversity of people, op inions, and religions (Monsma, 2012).The church is simply one of many places where social welfare ideations have manifested themselves, and the battles against social injustices have been fought. For many years a great variety of religiously affiliated organizations, colleges, hospitals, and social service agencies have received federal welfare funding. There is nothing profoundly new about the inclusion of faith-based organizations in the delivery of social welfare services to the disenfranchised and vulnerable populations (Karger et al, 2007).What is new is the prominence of postmodern, humanistic ideologies in social welfare that began in the 20th century (Hugen, 2012). The clashes between present-day humanistic and faith-based ideologies have spawned a lasting political debate over the correctness of federal government unding of faith-based social services. A major landmark for this political debate occurred in 1996 when the United States Congress passed a set of provisions unde r the Personal Responsibility and Work Opportunity Reconciliation Act (PRWORA) section 104†also known as the Charitable Choice clause (Daly, 2009; Wuthnow, 2004).Charitable Choice removed many of the restrictions on integrating religious content with faith-based delivery of social services, and positioned faith-based social service agencies as equivalent to secular social service agencies (Karger et al, 2007). The ovement to incorporate faith-based social service agencies was further fueled by President George W. Bush's Faith Based and Community Initiative (FBCI) (Kennedy & Bielefeld, 2006; Daly, 2009; and Wuthnow, 2004).The Bush administration aimed to do two things based on the core Judicious principles of Charitable Choice: first, to increase the amount of federal social-welfare resources going to faith-based organizations; and second, to protect the organizational autonomy and religious identity of these groups when contracted with the government (Daly, 2007). As a result of the Bush-era FBCI, eleven faith and community-based offices were created n federal agencies, and many states began to develop programs to expand the role of faith-based social services in delivering anti-poverty assistance (Reingold, Pirog & Brady, 2007).The Bush-era faith-based initiative was strong enough that the Bush administration's proposed budget for 2002 allocated nearly $90 million to organizations that expanded or emulated models ot tai tn-based social service programs (Twombly, 2002). Today, according to the National Center for Charitable Statistics (NCCS), there are 956,738 public charities, 97,435 private foundations, and 70,745 other types of nonprofit organizations (NCCS, 2013). According to the NCCS Core Files, public charities reported over $1. 59 trillion in total revenues, and $1. 9 trillion in total expenses in 2011. Of the public charities' revenues: 22% came from contributions, gifts and government grants; 72% came from program service revenues, which includ e government fees and contracts; and 6% came from â€Å"other† sources (NCCS, 2013). Blackwood, Roeger, & PettiJohn (2012) reveal that there was a 42. 3% growth in the number 501(c)(3) public charities from 2000 to 2010. In New York State alone, there are 1 5,362 religious or spiritually related public charities (IRS Business Master File 04/2010).Eric Twombly (2002), an affiliate of The Urban Institute, and Ira Colby (2007), a social work professor at the University of Houston, point out that many faith-based organizations, such as The Salvation Army, United Jewish Communities, Catholic Charities, and Lutheran Social Services have historically received government support and played a significant role in social service provisions in the United States. These groups are key players in many local areas in both direct ocial provision and setting government service priorities.The goal of this essay is to explore the political debate over Charitable Choice and the faith-based initia tive, and secondly, to uncover the implications for social work practice and social work education from this debate. It is evident that faith-based organizations play a substantial role in the delivery of social welfare services in the United States (Nagel, 2006). To begin our exploration of this issue, we will look at the relevant worldviews and belief systems that support or refute the federal government support of faith- based social service agencies.Worldview/ Belief Issues Republicans have favored the privatization of social welfare and reinforced the value of nonprofits. Conservative thinkers believe that churches can address welfare better than the government and the secular social service system (Cnaan & Boddie, 2002). Conservatives vigorously attack the belief that government should finance and deliver social services to the population (Karger et al, 2007). Conservatives argue privatization has become a paradox in social welfare because the private sector has been utilized in service provision and precedes the welfare state in many instances.David Osborne and Ted Gaebler (1992) assert in Reinventing Government that the private and public sectors have different roles. The government's role should consist primarily of establishing the objectives of social policy, and the private sector role should consist of executing the policy. David Stoesz (2007) co-author of American Social Welfare Policy argues, â€Å"nonprofit organizations have been poor competitors, often losing out to for-profit firms† (p. 193).He further asserts that the nature of nonprofits make them less competitive than commercial firms, and when for-profits nter the same market, they often take a substantial portion of the market until nonprofits adopt the same management procedures and become more efficient. A large assumption is this: if for-profits suspect that they can generate a profit by providing superior service to a clientele, they will seek to subcontract with the governme nt and provide the service.Conversely, Ira Colby (2007) the Dean and Professor of social work at the University of Houston asserts that privatization of social services as the answer to creating ettective service provisions tor the poor is a â€Å"grossly erroneous assumption† (p. 194). According to Colby (2007) the catchphrases of â€Å"compassionate conservative† or â€Å"faith-based social services† are simply resurfacing ideas from a previous welfare era where greater reliance on the private sector was emphasized.Liberal ideology asserts that the government should play a central role in the provision of services†that government is responsible for ensuring that all people, regardless of status in life, receive needed services and supports that maximize their well-being and ability to participate in society. In essence, basic social services are the business of the government (Colby, 2007). Monsma (2012) identifies 5 factors that underlie and work to mol d how liberals view the public role of faith- based organizations.The first is a strong emphasis on the free, autonomous, choosing individual. The second is a suspicion of traditional values and religion when they enter the public square. The third is seeing government as a potentially positive force for social change and improvement. Fourth is its embrace of the strict church-state separation, no-aid-to-religion standard. The fifth and final factor is the legacy of the nondiscrimination statuses of the 1960s. These factors, which can be onsidered beliefs, lead liberals to look negatively upon faith-based human service providers.The emphasis seems to be instead on freedom of choice and what the government can potentially do to improve societal conditions. Rev. Robert Owens (2001) posits that a negative correlation exists between the amount of funding received by religious organizations and the strength of religious mission. Owens, in his stance against public funding of religious or ganizations, argues that accepting government money to provide social service programs only deepens the confusion in communities about who works for whom. Accepting government money turns the state/ church relationship upside down†where the church works for the state.The solution then is to keep religious congregations independent of the influence of government. Political, Legal, Social Policy After the Great Depression, President Roosevelt's New Deal political ideations focused on the structural conditions contributing to poverty and social inequality. Because of the depression, it had become obvious that personal morality could not prevent or be the primary cause of poverty (Nagal, 2006). Therefore, the public responsibility for ocial welfare was emphasized, and the popular moral dimension was minimized in social service delivery.Following the New Deal era, the Reagan administration shifted the focus back to the inclusion of faith-based organization in social service provisi ons. President Reagan considered religious organizations to be more effective than public or secular, nonprofit social service providers (Cnaan & Boddie, 2002). Reagan went so far as to use the parable of the Good Samaritan as a metaphor for the cause of poverty. His perception of the biblical parable contrasted a bureaucratic aseworker against the Good Samaritan: The story of the Good Samaritan has always illustrated to me what God's challenge really is.He crossed the road, knelt down, bound up the wounds of the beaten traveler, the pilgrim, and carried him to the nearest town. He didn't go running into town and look tor a case-worker to tell him that there was a tellow out there that needed help. He took it upon himself. (Denton, 1982, p. 3 as cited in Cnaan & Boddie, 2002) Reagan believed in volunteerism and the increased responsibility of private organizations to meet society's social-welfare needs. The emphasis on volunteerism resulted in a decrease of government spending on so cial welfare initiatives in the 1980s.Reagan challenged the private sector to step up and meet the needs of society. He called on churches to provide for the needs of the poor within their own neighborhoods (Yancey, 2007). President Clinton took the challenge one step further and suggested that organized religion would be able to make a significant contribution to reducing the need for social welfare if each congregation in the United States would hire one person in need (Wuthnow, 2004). Here is what President Clinton said:Under this law [Charitable Choice], every state, when it becomes effective, every state in the country can say: If you will hire somebody off welfare, we'll give you the welfare checks as a supplement for the wages and the training. It means, folks, when you go back home, your church can receive a person's welfare check and add to it only a modest amount of money to make a living wage, and to take some time to train people and bring their children into the church, and make sure their children are all right and give them a home and family.I Just want every pastor in this audience to think about it. Just think about it. If every church in America hired one person off welfare, if every church in America could get some work to do that, it would set an example that would require the business community to follow, that would require the charitable and other nonprofit organizations to follow. We cannot create a government Jobs program big enough to solve the whole thing, but if everybody did it, one by one, we could do this Job. Associated Press, 1996, section A2) Throughout the later part of the 20th century, the federal government called on the Church to act as the primary safety net for people in need. History reveals that faith- ased organizations have always been a part of providing social welfare services. The Personal Responsibility and Work Opportunity Reconciliation Act of 1996 with the Charitable Choice clause and Bush's Faith Based and Co mmunity Initiative simply increased the collaboration between faith-based organizations and the federal government.Separation of Church and State Before the Charitable Choice provision of the Personal Responsibility and Work Opportunity Reconciliation Act of 1996, faith-based organizations contracting with the government had to remove all religious symbols from the room where service was rovided; accept all clients; refrain from any religious ceremonies; hire staff that reflected society, not the organization's belief system; adhere to government contract regulations; and incorporate separately as an 501 (c) (3) nonprofit organizations (Cnaan ; Boddie, 2002).All this changed after the PRWORA of 1996. First, faith- based services providers retain their religious autonomy; second, the government could not curtail the religious expression or practice of faith-based services; third, taitn-based service providers were exempt trom complying with employment policies andated by the Civil Ri ghts Act of 1964; finally, faith based organization contracting with the government were no longer required to establish a separate, secular 501 (c) (3) nonprofit organization (Cnaan ; Boddie, 2002).There are, however, some stipulations that remain in order to contract with the government. Faith-based organizations are fiscally accountable to use government funds for the intended social services and not for religious worship or proselytization. The purpose of this section of the law is to ensure a clear separation between church and state. In order or the government to remain neutral to the religious or secular character of organizations, both are offered an opportunity to participate in social service programs.As Rosenthal (2006) states in his conclusion on Charitable Choice Programs and Title VII's Co-Religionist Exemption: By offering religious institutions the opportunity to participate in social service programs, Congress is faithfully engaging the constitutional principle of n eutrality by affording these organizations the same opportunities as non-religious organizations. On the flip side, however, the Constitution requires that this participation be both ecular and non-discriminatory, so as to ensure that religious organizations are not benefited simply by virtue of their religious character. p. 665) Implication for Social Work Practice David Stoesz (2007) in his response to Should Social Services be Privatized asserts that the social work profession traditionally sides with social welfare. This leads to the dismissal of nonprofit agencies and blatant hostility to for-profit agencies. Because of this bias, social work education is devoid of the knowledge and skills that are essential to business strategies in service provision. The implication for social work education would entail an increase of content in finance, marketing, information systems, and contracting.This would equip social workers to be more competitive in the new human-service market. Wit h access to government funding that no longer regards the religious character of the service provider as a hindrance to the separation of church and state, it is likely (if not already evident by the NCCS reports) that more faith-based organizations and churches will engage in partnership with the public sector. This significant change has influenced social service delivery.As a social work practitioner, I could easily find myself working within a faith-based organization or at least collaborating with a faith-based organization in service delivery. Social work is a value-based profession. Although more secularized than ever before, social work can provide leadership in shaping the collaborative effort between the helping professions and faith-based organizations. This is especially important in considering the integration of spirituality and religion in social work practice.With the prevalence of faith-based organizations providing social services, it ould be beneficial for social work education to increase the content on ethical social work practice within religious settings. With an increased competency in the integration of social work practice with religion and spirituality, social work practitioners can further appreciate the efforts of religious organizations to address social problems. Social work should also â€Å"proceed cautiously to outline the parameters ot ethical social work practice in religious organizations† (Sherr et al, 2009, p. 64) so that service delivery does not cross the ethical line and become an opportunity for proselytizing. The profession of social work continues to realize the importance of religious and spiritual beliefs for clients. The importance of these issues in social work education is supported by the Council on Social Work Education (CSWE) Educational Policy and Accreditation Standard, 2. 1. 4: Social workers understand how diversity characterizes and shapes the human experience and is critical to the formation of identity.The dimensions of diversity are understood as the intersectionality of multiple factors including age, class, color, culture, disability, ethnicity, gender, gender identity and expression, immigration tatus, political ideology, race, religion, sex, and sexual orientation†¦ [Social workers] gain sufficient self-awareness to eliminate the influence of personal biases and values in working with diverse groups†¦ (CSWE, 2008, p. 5) The NASW Code of Ethics (2008) points to the importance of recognizing religious and spiritual beliefs in order to practice in a holistic, client-centered manner.Section 1 . 05(c) of the Code of Ethics states: Social workers should obtain education about and seek to understand the nature of social diversity and oppression with respect to race, ethnicity, national origin, color, ex, sexual orientation, gender identity or expression, age, martial status, political belief, religion, immigration status and mental or physical disability. (NASW, 2 008, p. 9) Competently addressing religious and spiritual beliefs is part of the holistic approach to working with the multi-dimensional person†bio, psycho, social, and spiritual.To ignore the value system of a client leaves the door open for social workers to taint the helping relationship with their own beliefs and values (Zellmer & Anderson-Meger, 2011). Summary populations (Karger et al, 2007). History reveals that faith-based organizations have lways been a part of providing social welfare services. The Personal Responsibility and Work Opportunity Reconciliation Act of 1996 with the Charitable Choice clause and Bush's Faith Based and Community Initiative simply increased the collaboration between faith-based organizations and the federal government.Conservative thinkers believe that churches can address welfare better than the government and the secular social service system (Cnaan ; Boddie, 2002). Conservatives vigorously attack the belief that government should finance and deliver social services to the population (Karger et al, 2007). Liberal ideology asserts that the government should play a central role in the provision of services†that government is responsible for ensuring that all people, regardless of status in life, receive needed services and supports that maximize their well-being and ability to participate in society (Colby, 2007).With an increased competency in the integration of social work practice with religion and spirituality, social work practitioners can turtner appreciate the etto religious organizations to address social problems. With the prevalence of faith- based organizations providing social services, it would be beneficial for social work ducation to increase the content on ethical social work practice within religious settings. The clashes between present-day humanistic and faith-based ideologies have spawned a lasting political debate over the correctness of federal government funding of faith-based social servic es.In the American pluralistic society, public funds should not be used to promote any particular religion. Therefore, the social work profession should take a leadership role in appreciating diversity, and ethically navigating social welfare and the faith-based initiative.

Nanyang Technology University and Management theories Essay

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Compare and contrast the regional variations that are prevalent in the Research Paper

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Life and career Essay Example for Free

Life and career Essay Singers parents were Viennese Jews who escaped the German annexation of Austria and fled to Australia in 1938. His grandparents were less fortunate; they were taken by the Nazis to Lodz, and were never heard of again. [1] Singers father imported tea and coffee, while his mother practised medicine. He attended Scotch College. After leaving school, Singer studied law, history and philosophy at the University of Melbourne, gaining his degree in 1967. He received an MA for a thesis entitled Why should I be moral? n 1969. He was awarded a scholarship to study at the University of Oxford, obtaining a B. Phil in 1971 with a thesis on civil disobedience, supervised by R. M. Hare, and subsequently published as a book in 1973. [2] After spending two years as a Radcliffe lecturer at University College, Oxford, he was visiting professor at New York University for 16 months. He returned to Melbourne in 1977, where he has spent most of his career, apart from many visiting positions internationally, and until his move to Princeton in 1999. Animal LiberationPublished in 1975, Animal Liberation[3] was a major formative influence on the animal liberation movement. Although Singer rejects rights as a moral ideal independent from his utilitarianism based on interests, he accepts rights as derived from utilitarian principles, particularly the principle of minimizing suffering. [4] Singer allows that animal rights are not exactly the same as human rights, writing in Animal Liberation that there are obviously important differences between human and other animals, and these differences must give rise to some differences in the rights that each have. [5] So, for example an animal does not have the right to a good education as this is meaningless to him, just as a male human does not have the right to an abortion. But he is no more skeptical of animal rights than of the rights of women, beginning his book by defending just such a comparison against Mary Wollstonecrafts 18th-century critic Thomas Taylor, who argued that if Wollstonecrafts reasoning in defense of womens rights were correct, then brutes would have rights too. Taylor thought he had produced a reductio ad absurdum of Wollstonecrafts view; Singer regards it as a sound logical implication. Taylors modus tollens is Singers modus ponens. In Animal Liberation, Singer argues against what he calls speciesism: discrimination on the grounds that a being belongs to a certain species. He holds the interests of all beings capable of suffering to be worthy of equal consideration, and that giving lesser consideration to beings based on their having wings or fur is no more justified than discrimination based on skin color. In particular, he argues that while animals show lower intelligence than the average human, many severely retarded humans show equally diminished mental capacity, and intelligence therefore does not provide a basis for providing nonhuman animals any less consideration than such retarded humans. Singer does not specifically contend that we ought not use animals for food insofar as they are raised and killed in a way that actively avoids the inflicting of pain, but as such farms are few and far between, he concludes that the most practical solution is to adopt a vegetarian or vegan diet. Singer also condemns most vivisection, though he believes animal experiments may be acceptable if the benefit (in terms of improved medical treatment, etc. ) outweighs the harm done to the animals used. [6] Due to the subjectivity of the term benefit, controversy exists about this and other utilitarian views. But he is clear enough that humans of comparable sentience should also be candidates for any animal experimentation that passes the benefit test. So a monkey and a human infant would be equally available for the experiment, from a moral point of view, other things being equal. If performing the experiment on the infant isnt justifiable, then Singer believes that the experiment shouldnt happen at all — instead, the researchers should pursue their goals using computer simulations or other methods. Applied ethics His most comprehensive work, Practical Ethics,[7] analyzes in detail why and how beings interests should be weighed. His principle of equality encompasses all beings with interests, and it requires equal consideration of those interests, whatever the species. The principle of equal consideration of interests does not dictate equal treatment of all those with interests, since different interests warrant different treatment. All have an interest in avoiding pain, for instance, but relatively few have an interest in cultivating their abilities. Not only does his principle justify different treatment for different interests, but it allows different treatment for the same interest when diminishing marginal utility is a factor, favoring, for instance, a starving persons interest in food over the same interest of someone who is only slightly hungry. Among the more important human interests are those in avoiding pain, in developing ones abilities, in satisfying basic needs for food and shelter, in enjoying warm personal relationships, in being free to pursue ones projects without interference, and many others. The fundamental interest that entitles a being to equal consideration is the capacity for suffering and/or enjoyment or happiness; mice as well as human beings have this interest, but stones and trees do not. He holds that a beings interests should always be weighed according to that beings concrete properties, and not according to its belonging to some abstract group such as a species, or a set of possible beings, or an early stage of something with an as yet unactualized potential. He favors a journey model of life, which measures the wrongness of taking a life by the degree to which doing so frustrates a life journeys goals. So taking a life is less wrong at the beginning, when no goals have been set, and at the end, when the goals have either been met or are unlikely to be accomplished. The journey model is tolerant of some frustrated desire, explains why persons who have embarked on their journeys are not replaceable, and accounts for why it is wrong to bring a miserable life into existence. Although sentience puts a being within the sphere of equal consideration of interests, only a personal interest in continuing to live brings the journey model into play. This model also explains the priority that Singer attaches to interests over trivial desires and pleasures. For instance, one has an interest in food, but not in the pleasures of the palate that might distinguish eating steak from eating tofu, because nutrition is instrumental to many goals in ones life journey, whereas the desire for meat is not and is therefore trumped by the interest of animals in avoiding the miseries of factory farming. In order to avoid bias towards human interests, he requires the idea of an impartial standpoint from which to compare interests. This is an elaboration of the familiar idea of putting oneself in the others shoes, adjusted for beings with paws or flippers. He has wavered about whether the precise aim is the total amount of satisfied interests, or instead the most satisfied interests among those beings who already exist prior to the decision one is making. Both have liabilities. The total view, for instance, seems to lead to Derek Parfits Repugnant Conclusion[8] — that is, it seems to imply that its morally better to have an enormous population with lives barely worth living rather than a smaller population with much happier lives. The prior-existence view, on the other hand, seems questionably indifferent to the harm or benefit one can do to those who are brought into existence by ones decisions. The second edition of Practical Ethics disavows the first editions suggestion that the total and prior-existence views should be combined in such a way that the total view applies to sentient beings who are not self-conscious and the prior-existence view applies to those who are. This would mean that rats and human infants are replaceable — their painless death is permissible as long as they are replaced — whereas human adults and other persons in Singers expanded sense, including great apes, are not replaceable. The second edition dispenses with the requirement of replacement and the consequent high population numbers for sentient beings. It asserts that preference-satisfaction utilitarianism, incorporating the journey model, applies without invoking the first editions suggestion about the total view. But the details are fuzzy and Singer admits that he is not entirely satisfied with his treatment of choices that involve bringing beings into existence. Ethical conduct is justifiable by reasons that go beyond prudence to something bigger than the individual, addressing a larger audience. Singer thinks this going-beyond identifies moral reasons as somehow universal, specifically in the injunction to love thy neighbor as thyself, interpreted by him as demanding that one give the same weight to the interests of others as one gives to ones own interests. This universalizing step, which Singer traces from Kant to Hare, is crucial and sets him apart from moral theorists from Hobbes to David Gauthier, who regard that step as flatly irrational. Universalization leads directly to utilitarianism, Singer argues, on the strength of the thought that my own interests cannot count for more than the interests of others. Taking these into account, one must weigh them up and adopt the course of action that is most likely to maximize the interests of those affected; utilitarianism has been arrived at. Singers universalizing step applies to interests without reference to who has them, whereas a Kantians applies to the judgments of rational agents (in Kants kingdom of ends, or Rawlss Original Position, etc. ). Singer regards Kantian universalization as unjust to animals. Its their capacity for suffering/happiness that matters morally, not their deficiency with respect to rational judgment. As for the Hobbesians, Singer attempts a response in the final chapter of Practical Ethics, arguing that self-interested reasons support adoption of the moral point of view, such as the paradox of hedonism, which counsels that happiness is best found by not looking for it, and the need most people feel to relate to something larger than their own concerns. Abortion, euthanasia and infanticide Consistent with his general ethical theory, Singer holds that the right to physical integrity is grounded in a beings ability to suffer, and the right to life is grounded in, among other things, the ability to plan and anticipate ones future. Since the unborn, infants and severely disabled people lack the latter (but not the former) ability, he states that abortion, painless infanticide and euthanasia can be justified in certain special circumstances, for instance in the case of severely disabled infants whose life would cause suffering both to themselves and to their parents. In his view the central argument against abortion is It is wrong to kill an innocent human being; a human fetus is an innocent human being; therefore it is wrong to kill a human fetus. He challenges the second premise, on the grounds that its reference to human beings is ambiguous as between human beings in the zoological sense and persons as rational and self-conscious. There is no sanctity of human life that confers moral protection on human beings in the zoological sense. Until the capacity for pain develops after 18 weeks of gestation, abortion terminates an existence that has no intrinsic value (as opposed to the value it might have in virtue of being valued by the parents or others). As it develops the features of a person, it has moral protections that are comparable to those that should be extended to nonhuman life as well. He also rejects a backup argument against abortion that appeals to potential: It is wrong to kill a potential human being; a human fetus is a potential human being; therefore it is wrong to kill a human fetus. The second premise is more plausible, but its first premise is less plausible, and Singer denies that what is potentially an X should have the same value or moral rights as what is already an X. Against those who stress the continuity of our existence from conception to adulthood, he poses the example of an embryo in a dish on a laboratory bench, which he calls Mary. Now if it divides into two identical embryos, there is no way to answer the question whether Mary dies, or continues to exist, or is replaced by Jane and Susan. These are absurd questions, he thinks, and their absurdity casts doubt on the view that the embryo is a human being in the morally significant sense. Singer classifies euthanasia as voluntary, involuntary, or non-voluntary. (For possible similar historical definitions of euthanasia see Karl Binding, Alfred Hoche and Werner Catel. ) Given his consequentialist approach, the difference between active and passive euthanasia is not morally significant, for the required act/omission doctrine is untenable; killing and letting die are on a moral par when their consequences are the same. Voluntary euthanasia, undertaken with the consent of the subject, is supported by the autonomy of persons and their freedom to waive their rights, especially against a legal background such as the guidelines developed by the courts in the Netherlands. Non-voluntary euthanasia at the beginning or end of lifes journey, when the capacity to reason about what is at stake is undeveloped or lost, is justified when swift and painless killing is the only alternative to suffering for the subject.

Historical and Contemporary Theories of Sight

Historical and Contemporary Theories of Sight Introduction Sight is one of the most stimulant senses in our body. When we are born, assuming everything went well, we open our eyes to experience our world. But throughout our history, we theorized how we are able to see. What causes us to see? What phenomenon gives us this gift? Many great minds tried to figure out these questions, even though a lot of these people were wrong, it set a path for future scientist to base their work and try to find the correct answer. We come to know that light is the main component of sight; the eye is able to bend it and produce color and images. It is important to understand the past in order to understand the present. One of the first theories would be the Emission theory. Of course it’s been replaced, but it is a significant part of the history of optics At the time, a challenging theory was the â€Å"Intro-mission† approach. Both these theories helped led a path for scientist to understand the true understanding. It allowed many scholars to choose sides and try to prove the other wrong. Then came modern theorist, first being Hermann Von Helmholtz. And like many theories, it was challenged by Ewald Hering theory â€Å"opponent process†. Throughout the 1800’s, many scientists argued theories about color and sight. One of the biggest topics was the theory of color; many scientists came up with theories and team up with other scientist to try to figure out how color is created. In the 1900’s the Gestalt theory raised many questions by people who study the science of vision. This essay is to answer, how the human eye operates by analyzing past and modern theories about sight. It is important to know how our body works, especially one of the most important sense, sight. Historic Theories The Atomists In ancient Greek, many people believed in gods and supernatural powers, but then there were the Atomists. They were the first who were able to come up with neutral, non-religious ideas. Democritus, who lived between 460 B.C .E– 370 B.C.E, stated that the air between the eye and the object that is seen is â€Å"contracted and stamped† by the object and the eye that observed it. The air holds the various colures of the object and appears in the observing eye. Then there was Epicurus, (341 B.C.E -270 B.C.E), stated that particles flow from the object into the eye, but the body would not shrink because other particles will replace the empty space. Both of these theories are based on the same principle, the object can only be seen if it directly comes into contact with an observing eye. For Democritus, the essential part of vision is air. For Epicurus, the presence of particles is the most essential part. Democritus discoveries were pretty close to right. He stated that ther e were four basic colors, white, black, red and green. Democritus was right about two of the colors. Plato Another theorist, who lived around the same time as the Atomists, is Plato (427 B.C.E. – 347 B.C.E). Plato’s theory combines the intromission theory, like the Atomists, and the emission theory, which states that light hitting the eye is the cause of vision. Plato stated that a ray comes from the observing eye, so the light will only let the same ray to pass through. The inner light in the eye fuses with sunlight to form a â€Å"homogeneous body†, located directly with the eye. The object being observed lets of â€Å"Flame Particles†, similar to the concept by Epicures. If the object being observed is placed within the homogeneous body, the particle has the ability to enter the eye and soul, casing sight. Stated by Plato, colors come from the flame particles from an object. When compared to the ray, there are three different types of color. If the size of the object’s particle is equal to the size of the ray, then the object is transparent. If the pa rticles are bigger, then it is a dark color. If the particles are smaller, then it’s a light color. Aristotle Aristotle (384 B.C.E – 322 B.C.E), relied on his senses and put his faith in his results of his observations. Aristotle could not prove the theories of the Atomists and Plato, so he went against them and came up with his own theory. Aristotle strongly believed that light could not be solid because it was not fire or a physical object. So what is light? Aristotle observed that objects, such as fire, can produce light on its own. Light must not be a physical material, but an immaterial transparent particle. To Aristotle, the emission and intromission theory did not make sense. If our eyes produce casual rays, then we should be able to see at any situation. But we cannot see with our eyes closed or in a very dark place. Aristotle disagreed with Plato because he could not find an explanation how light can collide with sunlight. Aristotle’s theory of sight was considered advance for its time, sunlight is reflected by an object and then transmitted through a medium to the eye (which is basic knowledge for modern theories). The only way vision can occur, is when a medium is in between the eye and an object. If you put an object in front of your eyes, you most likely won’t be able to see it (or slightly see it) due to there not being a medium in between the eye and object. What is this medium? Aristotle believes that this medium must be transparent, so we can see through it and see the object. Color lies on the object and allows motion to the transparent medium. This allows light to be transmitted to your eye. Vision occurs when color and medium interact with each other. Aristotle was also interested by the anatomy of the eye. He concluded, after cutting eyes of animals that the eye consists of three coasts covering a humor. Euclid and Ptolemy Euclid theorized about the geometrical aspects of vision. Euclid came up with the emission theory, since it involved visual rays that derive from the eye. But unfortunately, he cannot explain why one can perceive things. However, he does describe the visual perspectives. Euclid’s optics theory is based on his seven posits. There are indefinite rays coming from the eyes The rays form a cone of which the vertex is located at the eye and the base is located at the limit of your vision. Things that fall on the cone becomes visible Objects seen at a larger angle appear larger Objects seen at a higher visual ray come out higher The further right an object is stricken by the visual ray, the more right the object is seen Objects seen under more angles are observed more clearly The first three rules help explain concepts of visual rays that comes from the eye like Plato theorized. Rules 4 – 6 explains how the size and position of an object is depended on the angle being observed. The last rule explains the clarity of an object; the further the object, the bigger the visual cone is. This causes less visual rays upon the object, causing a less clear image. One of the greatest followers of Euclid was Claudius Ptolemy. Ptolemy continued Euclid’s theory by adding psychological, physical and physiological to his theory. Ptolemy agreed with Euclid’s rules stating visual rays emerges from the eye is a shape of a cone. Ptolemy added that a visual ray has the same aspects as sunlight. The idea came from Plato’s teachings, which states that when both visual rays and sunlight hit, they will form a homogeneous body. Which means visual light must be a consistent body. Euclid mentioned that there are a medium in between the visual rays, which illustrates why someone cannot see clearly at certain times. Ptolemy disagreed with Euclid on that statement; Ptolemy stated that there is only a single visual ray emerging in the shape of a cone. It will be impossible to see an entire object at one time. He also argues that rays only illustrated the geometry of sight, not reality itself, like Euclid seem to think. Ptolemy also brought bac k Aristotle’s theory of color. Ptolemy added that color produces a modification in the visual cone; Aristotle only explained that color cannot affect the visual cone. In Aristotle situation, it is the transparent medium without the existence of an external light. But sadly, most of Ptolemy work is unclear due to the loss of Ptolemy work. Ptolemy created two geometrical assumptions to Euclid’s theories. First, the clarity of an observed object with the visual cone might vary depending on its position. An object located placed over the main axis is recognized more clearly than an object located in the perimeter of the visual cone. Second, the pinnacle of the visual cone is situating directly at the center of the cornea. Galen Galen, a scientist from the Roman Empire, studied the structure of the eye. Galen would dissect monkeys and oxen to study their anatomy. Galen was able to psychological and physical elements for his theory from these experiments. Pneuma, an optical spirit, travels along the optic nerves connecting the eye and the brain. While in the eye, pneuma meets with air surrounding the eye and changed to match its nature. Because of this, the air converts into an instrument of soul, and becomes perceptive. Galan adapted this theory from the Stoics, Galen also has his own ideas; these entire pneuma take place in the crystalline lens located in the middle of the eye. As a result, the lens is the vital appliance of vision. Impaired vision leads him to this conclusion. The cause of impaired vision falls between the lens and cornea; if removed, you are able to see again. Galen was able to almost fully understand the knowledge of the eye structure from his studies. Galen was able to locate the lens o f an eye and mentioned the existence of the retina, which allowed pneuma to travel through nerved and allows the soul to interact with the images grabbed by the eye. The cornea’s purpose was to be a protective layer for the inner parts of the eye. Modern theorist Young – Helmholtz Thomas Young and H.V. Helmholtz developed the trichromatic theory of color. The theory is based on the observation of the mixing of colors and states that we can create new colors by just mixing the three primary colors; blue, red and yellow. Through many experiments, Helmholtz and Young found out that the vision of color relies on three receptors located in the retina. Each receptor has different spectral sensitivities to wavelengths. The three cones wavelengths are short, medium and long. Each having a specific wavelength and peaks of light absorption; â€Å"long (560nm), medium (530nm), and short (420nm)†. The tree receptors are stimulated by light at different degrees and patters which will result in the formation of a color. Which allows us to determine what color would form if the lights from different wavelengths are combined due to the reaction of each receptor. One of the main supporting evidence for Young – Helmholtz’s trichromatic theory was a color ma tching experiment. This experiment found that a wavelength in one filed is paired by altering the amount of three different wavelengths to one another.

Pre-Industrial Visual Cultures :: Culture Cultural Papers

Pre-Industrial Visual Cultures I remember my father's futile attempts at trying to get me interested in Eastern philosophy. He got me cartoon versions of Zen philosophy and the teachings of Chinese philosophers, and would try to draw parallels between their ideas and what was going on in our lives. Unfortunately, I was more preoccupied with my telephone-marathons and other such pressing issues. The effect of his words on me was like water rolling off a duck's back. As I got older and less oblivious to the world, old ways and ideas were no longer applicable and I found myself left with nothing to hold onto. My Christian background could not accommodate my intellectual and spiritual evolution - to question something even as fundamental as how our beings came into existence is blasphemy. I dislike how it encourages intellectual complacency and have problems with its inherently patriarchal and highly theatrical nature. The whole colorful and tragic production seems egotistical because the purpose of our existence is to worship God - and dire consequences await us should we do otherwise. And it doesn't matter if we were born in a non-western culture, where we will never hear the word 'Jesus'. It is still fire and brimstone for us for all of eternity through no fault of our own. It is not only very discriminating in the way the religion condemns the rest of the world but the whole production of creation and damnation seems really unnecessary if you t hink about it. Since God is supposedly all-knowing, he (assuming God is male - and no doubt white) must have known from the start that a part of his creation would acknowledge and worship him and the rest would be condemned to hell for eternity. Did he do it so he could say, "Oh, everything went as expected...too bad about all those in hell..." at the end of it all? The purpose of our existence in the Christian cosmos made no sense to me. Most of all, it's strange that all should be well and souls be saved as long as we obediently and unquestioningly follow some human interpretations (that Christians themselves cannot agree on) of some other human's words. At the same time I had trouble dealing with the transience of all things and feeling like I fell out of a UFO by accident because I felt as though I did not resonate with any human profoundly.

Consciousness and the Placebo Effect Essay -- Biology Essays Research

Consciousness and the Placebo Effect In controlled studies, experimenters use placebos as medium to compare the efficacy of a drug. Double-blind controlled studies provide information on whether a drug is effective or if it is not better than placebo. The results of double-blind studies usually depict the latter. Rarely are drugs found to be significantly more effective than placebo because of the placebo effect. The phenomenal effectiveness of the placebo in controlled experiments is mind boggling. Experimenters can not fully understand the etiology of the placebo effect in relation to the nervous system but they have proposed plausible suggestions to the underlying mechanisms involved. An intriguing question raised is the placebo's ability to cure numerous symptoms. I hypothesize that the level of consciousness or alertness of the I-function, within the individual, may be the deciding factor in whether the placebo effect occurs. The objective of a placebo is to compare and assure that a new drug or operational procedure is effective. In experiments, the placebo is an inactive substance or procedure used as a control in an experiment (1). The placebo looks, tastes or feels just like the actual treatment (2). A false procedure for example, may consist of advising a person that he/she will be operated on and then making an incision into a person without operating. Subjects are advised of their probability of receiving actual treatment in order to maintain the expectation level of the participants. The efficacy of making an incision maintains the expectation level of the subject because the presence of a scar raises their belief that they were placed in the actual treatment group. Whether the placebo is a 'sugar pill' or an... ...) Alternative and Complementary Therapies: The Placebo Effect http://www.cancer.org/alt_therapies/articles/placebo.html 3) Alpha Omega Pain Medicine Associates: Placebo Power , date: 4/18/99 http://www.painmasters.com/ 4) Healthline Magazine: Placebo Effects on Pain , date: 4/18/99 http://www.health-line.com/articles/hl950404.htm 5) The Reward System, by Aryeh Routtenberg (located on N & B Reserve) 6) Thalamocortical Aspects of Consciousness From the Perspective of a Neurobiologist , date: 5/5/99 http://www.phil.vt.edu/assc/newman/grace.html 7) Why It Must Be Consciousness- For Real ! http://www.phil.vt.edu/assc/newman/baars.html 8)Other Links 9)Mind/Brain/Behavior The Pleasing Placebo http://www.med.harvard.edu/publications/Focus/Jan20_1995/Mind.html 10)What's the Placebo Effect? http://www.oakland.edu/~djcarlst/abx_plac.htm

Causes and Effects of Stress in Daily Life Essay

Causes and Effects of Stress in Daily Life Stress comes from many different things and is the cause of many problems in a person’s life. There are different type of stress that mostly people experienced in there lives. The Acute, episodic and chronic stress. Each of this stress has a different types of characteristics, symptoms and treatment. Mostly people suffer from acute stress and experienced a perceived threat either physical, emotional or psychological that can cause our body to experiences and increased the levels of hormones and to increase the heart rate, breathing and higher blood pressure. Episodic stress is more severe type of acute stress. This type of stress is often more difficult to diagnose. Mostly people suffer from this type of stress experience symptoms everyday. The most common symptoms are headaches such as migraines, tension, being irritable, feeling anxious or even pain in the chest. According to Benjamin H. Gottlieb, Chronic stress is often defined by continuing the possibility or expectation of potential harm. The most common sources of stress in people’s life are often categorized like Death of spouse, family or friends. Health, crime, sexual problems, alcohol or drug abuse or inancial, and the life changing, for instance the divorce, separation, marriage or new baby. Argument with spouse, family member, friends, co-workers or boss. Physical changes to include lack of sleep, new work place and hours and the demands of the job and relationship with co-workers, new responsibilities and to understand the roles and regulations of the new Job and the support that there getting to a co- workers or supervisors. A lot of people suffers stress from the work place. to include the lack of feedback on the performance, poor communication with their own teams , orking long hours and uncomfortable work place. The general causes of stress that most common of people experienced are physical threat, social threat and financial threat. In particular it will be worsen when the person feels they have no response that can reduce the threat, the need and sense of control. When a person dealing with stress it can become fear that leads to imagined the outcomes. Uncertainty, unable to predict , and feeling not in control and lastly feeling being cognitive dissonance. It occurs when they cannot meet the commitments and being perceived as incapable and dishonest.

Compare and contrast life Essay

Belmont is totally different to Venice in some respects and ways, yet startlingly similar in others. Life in Belmont is at a slower, more relaxed pace than with life in Venice, where it is all hustle and bustle with the merchants. Belmont is also set back in the hills and countryside, which makes it a much more peaceful place to live simply because there is no noise from the markets and the Rialto in Venice. Venice is where all the merchants do their trading and selling, and Belmont is for the better off people, the aristocrats and the like, who prefer a more tranquil outlook on life, rather than rushing around with all the others. It is very fitting that Portia lives in Belmont, rather than Venice, because she seems to be the type who would prefer the quietness of the countryside, this also reflects her mind also, the calm collected way she acts, compared with the hot – headedness of some of Venice`s merchants. The similarities between Belmont and Venice are quite startling in some instances, because people have differring views on the word beautiful – for example in a modern world, big business people find large cities beautiful, and walkers in the countryside find that beautiful – it depends on the angle you look at it. Venice is a beautiful city in modern sense, so it must have been awesome in its heyday, back in Shakespeares time. Belmont is a different style of beautiful, peaceful, serene, idyllic, like a warm summers day it is like a small piece of heaven on earth. In Venice however, you get the racial demoralisation of the Jews and the feeling that they are second – class citizens, in Belmont however, there is no demoralisation of the jews, which proves that the two places are a world apart yet so close together. The main characters in each of these places helps us to understand the settings more easily. Antonio in Venice likes to be in all the hustle and bustle of things, right in the centre of everything, making the most of his wealth and his trading expertise to further his business, and to help his friends. Portia in Belmont on the other hand, seems happier keeping out of the hustle and bustle of Venice, keeping to the quietness of her house and the grounds surrounding it. I think this is better suited to her persona. Underlying each of the settings however, there is a sense of wearyness. When Portia says to Nerissa â€Å"By my troth, Nerissa, my little body is aweary of this great world † she seems to be longing for a change to her usual life. She may be hinting that she wants to leave Belmont and go to Venice for a while, just to change the monotony of her life, welcoming suitors to her home, then despatching them at almost the same instant. This is almost the same as Antonio`s opening speech † In sooth, I know not why I am so sad : It wearies me; you say it wearies you; â€Å"

India Government Essay

Imperialism began in India in the 1600s with the introduction of the East India Trade Company who placed trading posts at Bombay, Madras, and Calcutta. (British Imperialism in India, 2014). Prior to the arrival of EITC, the Mughal Empire was a larger and more powerful kingdom than any other country in Europe. The center of the Mughal Empire was in poorly populated northern region, the soil and river system in this area was perfect for farming, transporting and communicating. (A Case Study of British Imperialism in India, 2014). For some time, the EITC and Mughal were able to work cohesively together, but by 1707 the Mughal Empire had begun to crumble, and in 1757 Robert Clive, in alliance with the French, led troops to a victory over Indian forces at the Battle of Plassey. This made way for the EITC to become the primary power in India. (British Imperialism in India, 2014). The East India Trade Company grew quickly, with little interference from the British government, having its own army called sepoys comprised of both Indian and British soldiers. India was considered the jewel in the crown due in part to the skills of its people and its vast producing land. Cotton cloth and raw silk winding were in high demand for the company to export, as well as sugar, indigo dye and opium. (Marshall, 2014). The EITC used religious force and economic power to take and maintain control of India. Demanding that Indian textile not be in competition with British goods and cash crops for the farmers. This in turn forced the indigenous people to experience economical loss and inability to feed themselves. Britain had taken a stand-off approach with Indian religion, but many felt that Indian customs were compromised with the increase in missionaries and racist attitude towards India’s way of life. By 1857, there was ever increasing unhappiness, leading to a mutiny among the Sepoy. The Sepoy army were instructed to use rifle cartridges that were greased with pig or cow fat. Because the ends of the cartridges needed to be bitten off before using, this was offensive to the Sepoy army, whose population was either Hindu or Muslim. Muslim belief is that pigs are unclean and Hindu whose belief is that cows are sacred. (Anderson, 2007).  The Sepoy mutiny gave way to a new British government in India called Raj, who ruled Indian until 1947. (British Imperialism in India, 2014). Part B Violent Revolution: American Revolution The American Revolution was brought about by unhappy colonist who were against British taxes and sought independence from British rule. After winning the French and Indian War, King George II began to impose taxes on goods such as sugar and molasses that were brought in to the colonies with the Sugar Act of 1764. The Stamp Act (1765), required an official stamp on most transactions of colonial businesses. The colonist, unhappy with the taxes, and feeling that the British Parliament was corrupt, began to speak out against the taxes, labeling the taxes as illegal because the people of the colonies were not represented in the British Parliament. â€Å"No taxation without representation† was the cry of the colonies, to which the Parliament replied with a new tax, the Townshend Act (1777), applied taxes to all imported glass, lead, paint, paper and tea. (American Revolution, 2014). The colonist, unhappy with the taxes, began to speak out against the taxes, labeling the taxes as illegal, because the colonies were not represented in the British Parliament. Refusal to pay the Kings taxes lead the colonist to form a club called the Sons of Liberty. Members of the club broke into tax collectors homes, beat them and burned tax bills. In 1770, a battle between the colonists and British soldiers took place in Boston, Massachusetts, known as the Boston Massacre, killing 5 colonists and injuring many more. Two British soldiers were found guilty of murder and punished only by having their thumbs burned. (The American Revolution , 2014). On July 4, 1776, the Declaration of Independence, written by Thomas Jefferson was approved, showing England that America would become a free, independent county of British rule. (The American Revolution , 2014). Non Violent Revolution: Indian Independence Movement The cause of The Indian Independence Movement grew out of a nation in search of a way to free itself from British power and control. The goal of The Indian National Congress was to gain and maintain independence from the British forces. The Indian National Congress formed and held its first meeting in 1885, one of those in attendance was Mahatma Gandhi, who would  become the leader of the group. At first, the NIC professed loyalty to the British, but with World War 1 breaking out in 1914 and lasting until 1920, the NIC gradually became an opponent the British government. As the tolerance or the British decreased, the Indians strength increased. Indians began to realize that the British were not such a force to be reckoned with. (Indian Independence Movement, 2014). B1. Strategy Battles between the colonies and the British were full of conventional warfare and guerrilla warfare. Guerrilla warfare consists of spontaneous, individual acts of sabotage. Francis Marion, the â€Å"Swamp Fox† used guerilla warfare against the British, using bands of troops in caring size to prevent the British from gathering supplies, and harassing the small outposts and forts. (Joes, 1996). The INC, under the leadership of Gandhi conducted major campaigns to draw attention to Indians human and civil rights. Civil disobedience in the form of a non-violent protests and marches were formed. The Civil Disobedience Campaign of 1919-1922 was a boycott of British cloth, The Salt Satyagraha, a non-violent protest against the tax applied to salt. Gandhi was arrested by the British, who thought it would stop the movement, however it only increased in participants and forced the British government to discuss the possibility of Indian independence. (The Indian Independence Struggle , 2014). References A Case Study of British Imperialism in India. (2014, July 13). Retrieved from Modern World History: http://webs.bcp.org/sites/vcleary/ModernWorldHistoryTextbook/Imperialism/section_4/earlyindia.html American Revolution. (2014, July 16). Retrieved from Encyclopeida.com: http://www.encyclopedia.com/topic/American_Revolution.aspx#2 Anderson, C. (2007). Indian Uprising of 1857-8 : Prisons, Prisoners, and Rebellion. In C. Anderson, Indian Uprising of 1857-8 : Prisons, Prisoners, and Rebellion (p.

Riordan’s Manufacturing Strategy

The Ordain Manufacturing Company utilizes the level strategy for their manufacturing and production planning. The process begins with the raw materials that are received by the receiving team who ensure all necessary materials are accounted for and this team moves the raw materials to the factory. The receiving supervisor then compares shipping documents against scheduled incoming orders for processing. These orders are then received by the inventory clerk and this person enters the information related to the raw materials receipts into the inventory system.The level strategy is beneficial for Ordain because they are able to maintain a stable workforce at all times, working at a constant output rate. This strategy offers a schedule that keeps the finished product moving at the same rate throughout the production cycle. Ordain can continuously produce their products equal to the average demand of the goods. In addition, employees benefit from this strategy because they are guaranteed stable work hours and the costs of potentially decreased customer service levels and Increased Inventory costs, (Jacobs, F. R. & Chase, R. , 2011). Forecasting Technique and ProcessThe quantitative forecasting technique Is the most practical for Ordain Manufacturing to utilize to determine the future sales for their electric fans. Quantitative forecasting Is a statistical technique for making projections using data and prior experiences to predict those future sales based on past trends. (Observationally. Com, 2014). Radian's China plant prepares Its own forecast of electric fan sales that take place throughout the world. Their make-TCL;-order stock process forecasts Its demand for the fans based on the average sales In the previous three years and anticipate the same for upcoming years.

Relational Calculus Essay

Introduction Procedural Query language query specification involves giving a step by step process of obtaining the query result e.g., relational algebra usage calls for detailed knowledge of the operators involved difficult for the use of non-experts Declarative Query language query specification involves giving the logical conditions the results are required to satisfy easy for the use of non-experts Prof P Sreenivasa Kumar, Department of CS&E, IITM. 1 TRC – a declarative query language Tuple variable – associated with a relation ( called the range relation ) †¢ takes tuples from the range relation as its values †¢ t: tuple variable over relation r with scheme R(A,B,C ) t.A stands for value of column A etc TRC Query – basic form: { t1.Ai1, t2.Ai2,†¦tm.Aim | ÃŽ ¸ } predicate calculus expression involving tuple variables t1, t2,†¦, tm, tm+1,†¦,ts – specifies the condition to be satisfied Prof P Sreenivasa Kumar, Department of CS&E, IITM. 2 An example TRC query student (rollNo, name, degree, year, sex, deptNo, advisor ) department (deptId, name, hod, phone ) Obtain the rollNo, name of all girl students in the Maths Dept (deptId = 2) {s.rollNo,s.name| student(s)^ s.sex=‘F’^ s.deptNo=2} attributes required in the result This predicate is true whenever value of s is a tuple from the student relation, false otherwise In general, if t is a tuple variable with range relation r, r( t ) is taken as a predicate which is true if and only if the value of t is a tuple in r Prof P Sreenivasa Kumar, Department of CS&E, IITM. 3 General form of the condition in TRC queries Atomic expressions are the following: 1. r ( t ) -true if t is a tuple in the relation instance r 2. t1. Ai t2 .Aj compOp is one of {, ≠¥, =, ≠  } 3. t.Ai c c is a constant of appropriate type Composite expressions: 1. Any atomic expression 2. F1 ∠§ F2 ,, F1 ∠¨ F2 ,  ¬ F1 where F1 and F2 are expressions 3. (∀t) (F), (âˆÆ't) (F) where F is an expression and t is a tuple variable Free Variables Bound Variables – quantified variables Prof P Sreenivasa Kumar, Department of CS&E, IITM. 4 Interpretation of the query in TRC All possible tuple assignments to the free variables in the query are considered. For any specific assignment, if the expression to the right of the vertical bar evaluates to true, that combination of tuple values would be used to produce a tuple in the result relation. While producing the result tuple, the values of the attributes for the corresponding tuple variables as specified on the left side of the vertical bar would be used. Note: The only free variables are the ones that appear to the left of the vertical bar Prof P Sreenivasa Kumar, Department of CS&E, IITM. 5 Example TRC queries Obtain the rollNo, name of all girl students in the Maths Dept {s.rollNo,s.name | student(s) ^ s.sex=‘F’ ^ (âˆÆ' d)(department(d) ^ d.name=‘Maths’ ^ d.deptId = s.deptNo)} s: free tuple variable d: existentially bound tuple variable Existentially or universally quantified tuple variables can be used on the RHS of the vertical bar to specify query conditions Attributes of free (or unbound ) tuple variables can be used on LHS of vertical bar to specify attributes required in the results Prof P Sreenivasa Kumar, Department of CS&E, IITM. 6 Example Relational Scheme student (rollNo, name, degree, year, sex, deptNo, advisor) department (deptId, name, hod, phone) professor (empId, name, sex, startYear, deptNo, phone) course (courseId, cname, credits, deptNo) enrollment (rollNo, courseId, sem, year, grade) teaching (empId, courseId, sem, year, classRoom) preRequisite (preReqCourse, courseID) Prof P Sreenivasa Kumar, Department of CS&E, IITM. 7 Q2 Q3 Q4 Q5 Example queries in TRC (1/5) 1)Determine the departments that do not have any girl students student (rollNo, name, degree, year, sex, deptNo, advisor) department (deptId, name, hod, phone) {d.name|department(d) ^  ¬(âˆÆ' s)(student(s) ^ s.sex =‘F’ ^ s.deptNo = d.deptId) Prof P Sreenivasa Kumar, Department of CS&E, IITM. 8 Examples queries in TRC (2/5) Schema 2)Obtain the names of courses enrolled by student named Mahesh {c.name | course(c) ^ (âˆÆ's) (âˆÆ'e) ( student(s) ^ enrollment(e) ^ s.name = â€Å"Mahesh† ^ s.rollNo = e.rollNo ^ c.courseId = e.courseId } Prof P Sreenivasa Kumar, Department of CS&E, IITM. 9 Examples queries in TRC (3/5) Schema 3)Get the names of students who have scored ‘S’ in all subjects they have enrolled. Assume that every student is enrolled in at least one course. {s.name | student(s) ^ (∀e)(( enrollment(e) ^ e.rollNo = s.rollNo) → e.grade =‘S’)} person P with all S grades: for enrollment tuples not having her roll number, LHS is false for enrollment tuples having her roll number, LHS is true, RHS also true so the implication is true for all e tuples person Q with some non-S grades: for enrollment tuples not having her roll number, LHS is false for enrollment tuples having her roll number, LHS is true, but RHS is false for at least one tuple. So the implication is not true for at least one tuple. Prof P Sreenivasa Kumar, Department of CS&E, IITM. 10 Examples queries in TRC (4/5) Schema 4) Get the names of students who have taken at least one course taught by their advisor {s.name | student(s) ^ (âˆÆ'e)(âˆÆ't)(enrollment(e) ^ teaching(t) ^ e.courseId = t.courseId ^ e.rollNo = s.rollNo ^ t.empId = s.advisor} 5) Display the departments whose HODs are teaching at least one course in the current semester {d.name | department(d) ^(âˆÆ't)(teaching(t) ^ t.empid = d.hod ^ t.sem = ‘odd’ ^ t.year = ‘2008’)} Prof P Sreenivasa Kumar, Department of CS&E, IITM. 11 Examples queries in TRC (5/5) Schema 6)Determine the students who are enrolled for every course taught by Prof Ramanujam. Assume that Prof Ramanujam teaches at least one course. 1. {s.rollNo | student (s) ^ 2. (∀c)(course (c) ^ 3. ((âˆÆ't),(âˆÆ'p)( teaching(t) ^ professor(p) ^ 4. t.courseId = c.courseId ^ 5. p.name = â€Å"Ramanujam† ^ 6. p.empId = t.empId )) → 7. (âˆÆ'e) (enrollment(e) ^ 8. e.courseId = c.courseId ^ 9. e.rollNo = s.rollNo) 10. ) 11. } Prof P Sreenivasa Kumar, Department of CS&E, IITM. 12 Problem with unrestricted use of Negation What is the result of the query: {s.rollNo |  ¬ student(s)} ? Infinite answers !! Unsafe TRC expression : Any expression whose result uses â€Å"constants / values† that do not appear in the instances of any of the database relations. Unsafe expressions are to be avoided while specifying TRC queries. Prof P Sreenivasa Kumar, Department of CS&E, IITM. 13 Expressive power of TRC and Relational Algebra It can be shown that both Tuple Relational Calculus and Relational Algebra have the same expressive power A query can be formulated in (safe) TRC if and only if it can be formulated in RA Both can not be used to formulate queries involving transitive closure — find all direct or indirect pre-requisites of a course — find all subordinates of a specific employee etc. Prof P Sreenivasa Kumar, Department of CS&E, IITM.

M7A1 Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

M7A1 - Essay Example Underlying concept of initial investment includes cash outlay, working capital, salvage value and tax implications. The factors that are involved with the initial investment are; purchase price, cash from the sales of old equipment, marginal income tax, increase in working capital, cost of shipping and installation of new equipment. The factors that are involved with the operating cash flows are; sales revenue, cost of production, income before taxes, marginal tax rate, depreciation, increase in working capital. The factors that are involved in terminal cash flow are; decrease in working capital, salvage value, marginal income tax rate. The criteria capital budgeting includes (1) cost of capital, (2) opportunity cost, and break-even point. Cost of capital determines the cost of borrowing to pay for the project. This value set the benchmark for the lowest possible return. This benchmark shows if the investment is worth with compare to other investments. Opportunity cost determines the cost for taking advantage of one option over another. Break-even point determines if the project would contribute to the growth of the company. Break even is the point at which sales equals cost. Break-even point involves determining fixed and variable costs. Fixed costs are values that do not depend on production quantity. These costs are like, rent, salary, insurance, etc. Most of the variable costs, are associated with raw material, utility and transportation. Capital budgeting techniques are explicit formulas for analysis of financial values that determine if a company should proceed with the planned investment or not. Some of them are (â€Å" Investment decision – Capital Budgeting† ) Net Present Value (NPV), Internal Rate of Return (IRR), and Payback methods. All three methods use Operating Cash Flow (OCF) values. The OCF evaluates net cash flow for each year of project operation. The

Cognitive week 5 Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Cognitive week 5 - Essay Example The trace decay theory and the interference theory aim to explain the implications that result from trying to remember or recall memories; these implications being forgetting or distortion of memory which result in causing false memories in an individual. However when we look at the case by Loftus and Polage (1999) on eyewitness testimony we can see how shortly after viewing the video clips the participants answer’s to basic questions regarding what they had seen were inaccurate and false. This leads us to deduce that false memory problem can be a result of short term memory too. In court cases, mostly in 1983 to 1998, false memory in terms of claimed recovered memory of witnesses and victims had been readily accepted by the courts with convictions being solely on the reliability of these recovered memories. However it is clearer now that these alleged recovered memories have been tampered with mostly by therapists of these witnesses and can be hence be false in nature limitin g their reliability in court. For example a woman accused Dr. Thompson, a memory expert, to have raped her. However the doctor was doing a live interview just before the woman’s rape occurred. It was later discovered during a counseling session the woman’s recollection of the event had become confused and she had simply seen the doctor on television before the assault had taken place; a recollection that had been a result of a false memory (Sachter, 1996). Therefore highlighting the huge role false memory plays in the recollections by witnesses which can lead to false or inaccurate convictions if relied on solely. References Loftus, F. & Polage, D. C. (1999). Eyewitness Testimony. Psychiatric clinics of North America. 22, 61-70. Schacter, D.L. (1996). Searching for Memory - the brain, the mind, and the past. New York: Basic

Structure of the DNA and RNA Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Structure of the DNA and RNA - Essay Example From the discussion it is clear that  the DNA sequence is composed of four types of DNA which are adenine A and Guanine G, Thymine T and Cytosine C.  A sugar known as 2’-deoxy ribose is phosphorylated at its 5’hydroxyl group and free nucleotides have phosphates representing the mono-, di-, or triphosphate form of the nucleotide known as dGTP, dATP, dTTP and dCTP.  This paper highlights that DNA does not exist in a single strand since it is not stable; it links with a second strand and intertwines to form a double helix structure. The bases are bonded to each other at the centre in a particular way whereby Adenine bond with thymine with 2H-bonds and Cytosine bond with Guanine with 3H-bonds. The linear geometry and rigidity of the H-bonds prevents the base pair formation since the plane lies perpendicular to the axis of the helix. Watson and Crick described the B-DNA as the physiological form of the double helix DNA. The sequence of bases in the polymer encodes the genetic information for protein synthesis. The real structure of the DNA, however, deviates slightly from the B form in a sequence dependent manner as well as depending on the interaction with DNA-binding proteins.  A double helix has the minor and major grooves winding along the helix surface. In those grooves, parts of the ring structures of the purines and pyrimidines are exposed to the surface of the helix this is the site where most protein-DNA interactions occur.

Strategic Planning Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Strategic Planning - Essay Example Strategic planning may be one individual’s job, but it gets very risky when it is so. To make strategic planning practicable, it is imperative that teamwork is involved in this process. Strategic planning is based on cooperation among the team members that make it. Different people have specific skills and expertise in different fields. Strategic planning, particularly in the contemporary age, is based on the cooperation of experts having specific skills in distinct fields including technology, planning, and management. Coordination is fundamental to the success of strategic planning. Planning is made strategic when a team of experts from different origins and backgrounds and having association with different organizations, cultures, or subcultures are united at one platform and are told the objective that needs to be achieved. â€Å"†¦engaged leadership in the whole process of strategic planning including the implementation, particularly with regard to the three Cs is t he key to success† (Zomorrodian, 2011, p. 1130). Hence, the role and importance of the three C’s in the process of strategic planning cannot be overemphasized. Strategic planning can be understood as assessment of an organization’s needs for the advancement of its goals and missions in a particular time period. When collaboration is integrated into this process, it provides the organization with a way to exchange knowledge, skills, and competencies with different people participating in the process so that the goals can be modified and development can be ensued. This imparts the need to have enough resources as well as a culture that appreciates and encourages cooperation and teamwork. Cooperation plays the role of a catalyst when integrated in the process of strategic planning as it counteracts competition among the team members. Cooperation means development of

Omega 3 fatty acids and their correlation to mental health Essay

Omega 3 fatty acids and their correlation to mental health - Essay Example The media and fad dieticians have promoted diets that are low in fat. While there is a basis for reducing our intake of fat, the elimination of the essential omega-3 fatty acids may be responsible for the increasing rates of mental illness in the United States. A primary source for the omega-3 fatty acids is from cold water fish. Researchers have been aware that countries with a high percentage of seafood in their diet were less prone to having numerous mental disorders. Noaghiul & Hibbeln (2003) reported that countries with a diet high in seafood consumption such as Iceland and Korea, had far lower rates of bipolar I disorder, bipolar II, bipolar spectrum, and schizophrenia (p.2224). The study found that Germans, who consumed approximately 25 pounds of seafood per year per person, had a prevalence rate for bipolar spectrum disorder that was over 30 times greater that the population of Iceland where the average seafood consumption is almost 10 times that of the Germans (Noaghiul & Hibbeln, 2003, p.2223-2224). Intermediate countries such as the United States, Korea, and Puerto Rico all showed a strong correlation between the amount of seafood consumed and a lower rate of these major mental illnesses (Noaghiul & Hibbeln, 2003, p.2224). Thoug h they could not demonstrate the activity and causal relationship of omega-3, Noaghiul and Hibbeln (2003) concluded that the studies findings were, "†¦consistent with the hypothesis that an insufficient dietary intake of omega-3 essential fatty acids increases the risk of affective disorders" (p.2225). Increasing the consumption of seafood may help to prevent some forms of mental disorders. Some of the predisposition to the affective disorders may be treatable by increasing the intake of the omega-3 essential fatty acids. Andrew Stoll, director of the pharmacology research laboratory at Harvard

Statistic paper 1 Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Statistic paper 1 - Essay Example How does a consumer know which one contains the lowest calorie amidst so many brands? This assignment establishes facts that will help customers navigating through the aisles in search for cereal of deserved calorie. This will be achieved by establishing a population mean of calories of 100 gram of cereals regardless of cereal brands. Should a customer plan on finding a cereal packet that contains calories lower than the mean, the customer would need more time to find it than the packet with the mean value. Data Collection Breakfast cereal population, in this case, is different brands that are available at the website the calorie counter (â€Å"The Calorie Counter†). The data of each sample represents the published calorie value of 100 grams of breakfast cereals. Therefore, sample unit for this study is breakfast cereal, and the response unit is calorie per 100 gram. The population study reveals that General Mills, Kellog, Kraft, Malt – o- Meal, and Quaker companies are principal manufactures of the breakfast cereals (The Calorie Counter). General Mills produces 48 brands, Kellog produces 40 brands, Kraft produces 24 brands, Malt – O – Meal produces 9 brands, and Quaker produces 44 brands. The population consists of 165 brands. The study uses samples of 30 individual breakfast cereals selected randomly from this population. The population consists of 5 strata. This study uses stratified sampling technique to collect sample data. Numbers of samples from each stratum are calculated using the formula; (Population of the stratum / entire population) x 30. Sample size, n = 30 is determined on literature review for determining the sample size for statistical analysis (â€Å"30 Samples†). Description and Presentation of Data This research uses retrospective observational quantitative data; variables with numerical values. Quantitative data have two classes: discrete and continuous. If a variable can take values between a minimum and maximum, it is called continuous variable otherwise it is discrete. Based on the above discussion this assignment will use continuous quantitative data. The sample data of this assignment is presented using stem and leaf, and array tables. Stem and Leaf Table. It presents data in all of its detail. It describes the range and relative frequency of each value in the set. The stem and leaf table helps determine the best grouping level for a frequency histogram. In this assignment, the each value of sample data set consists of three digits. Raw data set is rearranged in an ascending order; first two digits are considered the stem and corresponding leafs are counted for each stem. Table 1 displays the values of the data set in the form of stem and leaf. Table 1. Stem and Leaf Data Distribution Total 31 1 1 32 0 3 2 33 2 4 2 34 0 1 35 0 2 2 36 5 1 37 0 3 3 6 8 5 38 0 1 3 3 7 7 6 39 0 1 2 3 6 6 6 40 0 9 2 41 2 5 2    Subtotal 30 Array Table. It is arranged to present data in a tabular fo rm of columns and rows. Table 3 displays data in ascending order in an array. Data are arranged in three rows, and each row consists of 10 columns Table2. Array Form Data Distribution 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 311 320 323 332 334 340 350 352 365 370 373 373 376 378 380 381 383 383 387 387 390 391 392 393 396 396 400 409 412 415 Histogram. Table 2 displays sample data in the array form. The minimum value is 311, and the maximum value is 415. The